Tayyab_Archive

Bionics
__**Sources**__

Laurence, Jeremy. "Introducing the first 'bionic man'." July 13 2006 1. 14 December 2007 <[|http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/13/AR2006091302271.html] This source was helpful because it showed the latest development of a bionic human. This is the most recent achievement in the bionic research. he is one of the first men to have bionic function. His performs these functions through thoughts. This is very interesting and phenomenal advancement in science.

Brown, David. "For 1st Woman With Bionic Arm, a New Life Is Within Reach." September 14, 2006 1-2. 14 December 2007 <[|http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/13/AR2006091302271.html] This was an article about a woman who is the first woman to use a bionic arm. This article opens minds to a new way to live. Bionics is becoming a new step in the human advancement. Bionics is another way to help a person live their life to the fullest.

Advanced Bionics UK Ltd, "Advanced Bionics Europe-History." __Advanced Bionics Europe__. 16 Dec 2007 <[|http://www.bionicear-europe.com/en/history/history.html] This is the state of the art bionic ear company. They help deaf people with hearing. This allows the people of the world who are deaf hear again. Bionics is also refered as biomimicry. This mean that the technology is mimicking natural functions. The ear basically listens or catches to different frequencies which is mimicked through the bionic ear.

An ASAIO History Project at The Smithsonian, "Artificial Organ History: A Selective Timeline." __Project Bionics - The History of Artificial Organs__. 16 Dec 2007 <[|http://echo.gmu.edu/bionics/exhibits.htm] There were many different developments of the bionic or artificial organs. These developments help people to live a normal life and actually live rather than living on life support and eating through a tube. People now are open to a new way of life and developments are still being made.

Simon Hadlington "[|The bionic boom]". Independent, The (London). Jun 20, 2007. FindArticles.com. 20 Dec. 2007. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20070620/ai_n19305163 This article is very informative of the recent and upcoming development in bionics. People are searching for ways to replace different things in the human body in order to live. I like this article because it gives large amount of information on the history of the technology. They also give the problem the researchers want to resolve.

Potkewitz, Hilary [|"Bionic eyes"], Los Angeles Business Journal, Jan 23 2006. FindArticles.com 20 Dec. 2007 http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m5072/is_4_28/ai_n16071268 This article was helpful to know about the recent development of the bionic eye. The article states different ways the eye will be beneficial to a person. It is short and concise. I like the way the article is formatted.

Tampone, Kevin "[|Benyus advises looking to nature for inspiration]". CNY Business Journal (1996+). May 18, 2007. FindArticles.com. 20 Dec. 2007. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3718/is_20070518/ai_n19338504 This article is very helpful to my understanding of bionics. This article explains the different inspirations of the machines developed. The one they talk about is nature. "The lessons today's innovators can take from nature are numerous, Benyus said. For example, high-speed trains in Japan now have the same shape as the beak of a certain species of fast-flying bird."(Tampone,1)

"[|Researchers Develop New Prosthetic Ankle]". National Guard. Aug 2007. FindArticles.com. 20 Dec. 2007. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3731/is_200708/ai_n21100026 This article talks about the latest development in bionics. The bionic ankle helps people with ankle problems by replacing it. "Researchers say the new prosthetic is the first in a new family of artificial limbs. It will replicate natural motion by propelling people forward using tendon-like springs powered by an electric motor."(National Guard, 1). This will help senior citizens when walking or moving.

"[|Cyberkinetics Reports First Data from Non-Speaking, Paralyzed Participant in Ongoing Study of BrainGate Neural Interface System - Expanded Evidence of Brain Computer Interface Utility Presented at ASSFN Meeting in Boston]". Business Wire. June 5, 2006. FindArticles.com. 20 Dec. 2007. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2006_June_5/ai_n16441943 This article talks about bionics in the context of the brain. There is a brain computer interfaced system which allows paralyzed people to communicate with others. There was a recent development in which "the use of the BrainGate System by those with quadriplegia to control computer interfaces using thought." (Business Wire, 1).

Kennedy, Sean "BIOMIMICRY/BIMIMETICS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICAL EXAMPLES" The Science Creative Quarterly, Issue III, Aug 2004, 20 Dec 2007 http://www.scq.ubc.ca/biomimicrybimimetics-general-principles-and-practical-examples/ This article is very helpful to the my comprehension of biomimicry. "This article has great examples to read about. One major application of biomimetics is the field of biomaterials, which involves mimicking or synthesizing natural materials, and applying this to practical design. There are many examples of materials in nature that exhibit unique useful properties. One of the major advantages of biomaterials is that they are normally biodegradeable. In addition, the extreme temperatures and hazardous chemicals often used in manmade construction are usually unnecessary with natural alternatives." (Kennedy, 1)

Carey, Bjorn, and Michael Belfiore.. "BIONIC MADE BETTER." __Popular Science__ 271.3 (Sep. 2007): 36. __Science Reference Center__. EBSCO. Queens Library, New York, NY. 3 January 2008. <[|http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.queenslibrary.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sch&AN=25999307&site=ehost-live>.] This is a great source on the topic of bionics. This article helps to make the process of bionics more understandable. It talks about the uses of artificial limbs. It is easily explained with pictures, this helps to envisage what is given. I like that the level of writing is at a standard in which all can understand.

Selim, Jocelyn. "The Bionic Connection ." __Discover__ 23.11 (Nov. 2002): 49. __Science Reference Center__. EBSCO. Queens Library, New York, NY. 3 January 2008. <[|http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.queenslibrary.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sch&AN=7576482&site=ehost-live>.] This article is about the breakthroughs of bionic achievement. This article includes different quotes of users of bionic limbs. This helps me to understand more of what it is like to have bionic limbs for the reason that the people interviewed is a primary source and have first hand experiences in writing.

FILLON, MIKE. "The new bionic man." __Popular Mechanics__ 176.2 (Feb. 1999): 50. __Science Reference Center__. EBSCO. Queens Library, New York, NY. 3 January 2008. <[|http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.queenslibrary.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sch&AN=1447426&site=ehost-live>.] This article talks about the different bionic advancements and uses. It talks about the different people and how they felt about bionic help. This article is very good because it explains the bionic parts well.


 * __First Developments and Success__**

"By the late 1950's, scientists in France reported the first successful electrical stimulation of hearing nerves by inserting an electrode in a deaf subject's inner ear. The patient perceived the rhythm of speech and reported that the stimulation provided assistance in lipreading. This was the beginning of the development of modern-day cochlear implants." (Advanced Bionics UK Ltd)

"In the evening of [|July 19], [|1963] E. Stanley Crawford and [|Domingo Liotta] implanted the first clinical LVAD at the Methodist Hospital in Houston, Texas in a patient who had a cardiac arrest after surgery. The patient survived for 4 days under mechanical support but didn't recover from the complications of the cardiac arrest, finally the pump was discontinued and the patient died." ("Artificial heart") "Mitchell and the first person to get a bionic arm -- a power-line technician who lost both arms to a severe electric shock -- will demonstrate their prostheses today at a news event in Washington. The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago is part of a multi-lab effort, funded with nearly $50 million from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), to create more useful and natural artificial limbs for amputees...The bionic arm makes use of several features of the human body that would be impossible to create from scratch. Luckily, a person still has them even after suffering an injury as grievous as the loss of an arm at the shoulder."(Brown, 1-2)

"He is unable to move or breathe on his own after his spinal cord was severed in a knife attack five years ago. But thanks to a dramatic scientific advance, Matthew Nagle, 25, can now pick up objects, open emails, change the channel on the television and play computer games. And, incredibly, he does it all using the power of thought alone.The quadraplegic - paralysed from the neck down - is part of an experiment at the cutting edge of neural implants research that enables him to operate a computer and a robotic arm with his brain. Scientists led by Professor John Donoghue, an expert in neurotechnology at Brown University in Rhode Island describe in the journal Nature, published today, how they implanted an electrode array into Mr Nagle's brain which converted the hubbub of electrical activity produced by a million sparking neurons into brain signals that operated devices outside his body.He was able to use his thoughts to move a cursor around a computer screen, open emails, change channels on a television and operate a robotic arm to pick up an object and move it, as well as playing simple computer games such as neural pong, a computer version of ping pong. During all these activities he was able to talk just as an able-bodied person would."(Laurence, p 1)


 * __Timeline of Bionics__**


 * 1951** --- Dubost of Paris replaces the abdominally aorta an aortic homograph.
 * 1952** --- Kolff-Brigham artificial kidney is used by the U.S. Army in 11th field hospital in Korea under unit chief P. Teschan.
 * 1952** --- Arterial graphs made of cloth are first described by Voorhees and Blakemore.
 * 1953** --- J. Gibbon, Jr. (Philadelphia) performs first successful clinical use of the heart-lung machine for cardiac surgery (closure of atrial septal defect).
 * 1954** --- Intra-cardiac surgery is performed by C. Laughton Lillehei using cross circulation from a healthy donor.
 * 1955** --- First meeting of the American Society for Artificial Internal Organs is held at the Hotel Chelsea in Atlantic City, New Jersey with 67 founding members.
 * 1955** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION : Kolff WJ. The artificial kidney - past, present and future. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 1:1-7, 1955.
 * 1955** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Clowes GHA Jr, Hopkins AL, Kolobow T. Oxygen diffusion through plastic films. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 1:23-24, 1955.
 * 1955** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Gibbon JH Jr. Artificial heart-lung machines: Chairman's address. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 1:58-62, 1955.
 * 1955** --- W. Kolff and his research team (Cleveland) develop a disposable twin-coil dialyzer.
 * 1950s** --- After the brief involvement of Allis-Chalmers and Westinghouse, the Baxter Corporation manufactures the first widely used commercial dialyzing machine - the Baxter/Travenol recirculating U-200 twin-coil dialyzer.
 * 1956** --- G. Clowes (Cleveland) develops the first successful membrane oxygenator-by 1960s further laboratory research studying function and improvement of membrane lungs is undertaken by Kolobow, Peirce, Galletti, Bramson and Hill, Landé and Lillehei, Drinker and Bartlett.
 * 1956** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Clark LC Jr. Monitor and control of blood and tissue oxygenation. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 2:41-45, 1956.
 * 1957** --- W.J. Kolff, T. Akutsu and their research team (Cleveland) successfully implants a hydraulic, polyvinyl chloride total artificial heart in a dog, keeping the animal alive for 90 minutes.
 * 1957** --- DeWall-Lillehei helix reservoir disposable bubble oxygenator is developed at the University of Minnesota and used in a series of 250 patients, which makes cardiopulmonary bypass safe and reliable for other teams worldwide.
 * 1957** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Edwards WS, Tapp JS. Two and a half years experience with crimped nylon grafts. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 3:70-72, 1957.
 * 1958** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Hufnagel C, Villegas A. Aortic valvular replacement. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 4:235-239, 1958.
 * 1960** --- The Quinton-Scribner shunt, developed by W. Quinton and B. Scribner in Seattle, Washington, makes chronic renal dialysis possible.
 * 1960** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Quinton W, Dillard D, Scribner BH. Cannulation of blood vessels for prolonged hemodialysis. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 6:104-113, 1960.
 * 1960** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Scribner BH, Buri R, Caner JEZ, Hegstrom R, Burnell JM. The treatment of chronic uremia by means of intermittent hemodialysis: A preliminary report. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 6:114-122, 1960.
 * 1960** --- R. Stewart develops first hollow fiber dialyzer.
 * 1960** --- First successful intracardiac prosthetic valve operations are conducted by Albert Starr of Portland, Oregon.
 * 1962** --- Cimino and Brescia develop the subcutaneous arterio-venous shunt for chronic hemodialysis.
 * 1962** --- The first successful kidney transplant in unrelated humans is performed by Joseph Murray of Boston.
 * 1963** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Kolobow T and Bowman RL. Construction and evaluation of an alveolar membrane heart lung. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 9:238-245, 1963.
 * 1963** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Nosé Y, Mikami J, Kasai Y, Sasaki E, Agishi T, Danjo Y. An experimental artificial liver utilizing extracorporeal metabolism with sliced or granulated canine liver. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 9:358-362, 1963.
 * 1963** --- D. Liotta and C.W. Hall (Houston) fabricate a tubular left ventricular assist device (LVAD), which is implanted by S. Crawford and M.E. DeBakey, but the patient does not survive. The Smithsonian's National Museum of American History, Artificial Organ Collection has this LVAD, donated by Dr. Hall.
 * 1964** --- Established by the National Heart and Lung Institute, the U.S. Artificial Heart Program, led initially by F. Hasting and later C. Dennis and J. Watson, aims to encourage and support further research and development of cardiac replacement devices (L. Harmison, P. Frommer and F. Altieri all serve important periods of time as Acting Chief for the Total Artificial Heart program).
 * 1964** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Gott VL, Whiffen JD, Koepke DE, Daggett RL, Boake WC, Young WP. Techniques of applying a graphite-benzalkonium-heparin coating to various plastics and metals. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 10:213-217, 1964.
 * 1964** --- Proportioning pump dialysis machine with safety monitors developed in Seattle. First longterm unattended overnight dialysis with this machine begun in Seattle.
 * 1966** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Eschbach JW Jr, Wilson WE Jr, Peoples RW, Wakefield AW, Babb AL, Scribner BH. Unattended overnight home hemodialysis. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 12:346-362, 1966.
 * 1966** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Chang TM. Semi-permeable aqueous micro capsules (artificial cells) with emphasis on experience in extracorporeal systems. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 12:13-19, 1966.
 * 1966** --- A. Kantrowitz (New York) successfully implants into a patient an aortic U-shaped auxiliary ventricle intended as destination therapy for congestive heart failure.
 * 1966** --- M.E. DeBakey (Houston) performs the first successful clinical implantation of a ventricular assist device (a pneumatically-driven paracorporeal diaphragm pump) in a 37-year-old woman who cannot be weaned from cardiopulmonary bypass following aortic and mitral valve replacement. She is supported for 10 days and discharged in less than a month. The original pump implanted in this patient was made by D. Liotta with the help of engineers from Rice University. Later, this pump is refined, and it is called the BCM-Rice pump. A prototype pump is available at the International Center for Medical Technologies in Houston, Texas.
 * 1967** --- The first human cardiac transplant is carried out by Christian Barnard of South Africa.
 * 1967** --- The first clinical use of the capillary fiber kidney occurs, developed by R. Stewart, and thereafter becomes universally used for long-term hemodialysis.
 * 1967** --- The double-leaflet prosthetic cardiac valve described by Lillehei and Kaster at ASAIO.
 * 1967** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Henderson LW, Besarb A, Michaels A, Bluemle Jr. Blood purification by ultrafiltration and fluid replacement (diafiltration). Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 13:216-225, 1967.
 * 1967 -**-- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Menno, AD, Zizzi J, Hodson J, McMahon J. An evaluation of the radial arterio-venous fistula as a substitute for the Quinton shunt in chronic hemodialysis. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 13:62-76, 1967.
 * 1967** --- A. Kantrowitz demonstrates clinical effectiveness of the intra-aortic balloon pump in cardiogenic shock patients, with its potential for treatment in acute heart failure.
 * 1968** --- A nuclear powered energy cell for implantable cardiac devices in animals is described by J. Norman at ASAIO.
 * 1968** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Kantrowitz A, Tjonneland S, Krakauer J, Butner AN, Phillips SJ, Yahr WZ, Sharpiro M, Freed PS, Jaron D, Sherman JS Jr. Clinical experience with cardiac assistance by means of intra-aortic phase-shift balloon pumping. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 14:344-348, 1968.
 * 1968** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Chardack WM, Gage AA, Greatbatch W. Experimental observations and clinical experiences with the correction of complete heart block by an implantable self-contained pacemaker. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 7:286-295, 1961.
 * 1969** --- D.A. Cooley, in the first clinical application of the total artificial heart, implants a pneumatically-powered heart designed by D Liotta (from the laboratory of M.E. DeBakey) as a bridge-to-transplantation into a 47-year-old male who survives 64 hours on the TAH and 32 hours following transplantation.
 * 1969** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Cooley D, Liotta D, Hallman GL, Bloodwell RD, Leachman RD, Milam RC. First human implantation of cardiac prosthesis for staged total replacement of the heart. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 15:252-263, 1969. (Discussion following: Kwan-Gett CS, Wu Y, Collan R, Jacobsen S, Kolff WJ. Total replacement artificial heart and driving system with inherent regulation of cardiac output. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 15:245-251) 1969.
 * 1970** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Schuder JC, Stoeckle H, Gold JH, West JA, Keskar PY. Experimental ventricular defibrillation with an automatic and completely implanted system. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 16:207-212, 1970.
 * 1971** --- A. Kantrowitz implants the dynamic aortic patch (now called the Kantrowitz CardioVad ) in a patient with terminal heart failure. This 63-year-old man is the first patient to be discharged to home with a cardiac assist device intended as destination therapy for congestive heart failure.
 * 1972** --- End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) Act passes in the USA ensuring federal support for chronic kidney disease management.
 * 1972** --- J.D. Hill, T.G. O'Brien and others (San Francisco) report first successful clinical case using extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for respiratory failure.
 * 1974** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Dobell WH, Mladejovsky MG. The directions for future research on sensory prostheses. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 20:425-429, 1974.
 * 1974** --- Lung Division of the National Heart and Lung Institute proposes a multicenter prospective randomized study of ECMO in adult respiratory failure; study begins in 1975.
 * 1975** --- Five different membrane oxygenators for ECMO are manufactured and used, including the Kolobow Sci-Med, the Landé-Edwards, the Peirce-GE, the Bramson, and the Kolobow "Teflo".
 * 1975** --- R.H. Bartlett, A.B. Gazzaniga and their colleagues (University of California, Irvine) report first successful clinical case of neonatal ECMO ("Esperanza").
 * 1975** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Bartlett RH, Gazzaniga AB, Jeffries MR, Huxtable RF, Haiduc NJ and Fong SW. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenations (ECMO) cardiopulmonary support in infancy. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 22:80-93, 1976.
 * 1975** --- The first NIH-sponsored multi-center clinical trial for temporary support in acute ventricular dysfunction (primarily post-cardiotomy), utilizing the model 7 and model 10 Axio-symmetric LVADs (Thermo Electron Corp) and Pierce-Donachy LVAD (Thoratec).
 * 1976** --- The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), established in 1931, begins regulating medical devices with passage of the 1976 Medical Device Amendments to the Food, Drug & Cosmetic Act, which seeks to provide "reasonable assurance of safety and effectiveness" for all medical devices.
 * 1977** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Rohde TD, Blackshear PJ, Varco RL, Buchwald H.Protracted parenteral drug infusion in ambulatory subjects using an implantable infusion pump. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 23: 13-16, 1977.
 * 1977** --- The Heart and Vascular Division of the National Heart and Lung Institute issues a Request for Proposals (RFP) for components of a totally implantable LVAD, and subsequently awards multiple contracts, establishing the current generation of pulsatile systems.
 * 1978** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Portner PM, Oyer PE, Jassawalla JS, Miller PJ, Chen H, LaForge DH, Skytte KW. An implantable permanent left ventricular assist system for man. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 24: 98-103, 1978.
 * 1978** --- Continuous ambulatory parenteral dialysis is reported by Oreopoulous at ASAIO.
 * 1978** --- BioMedicus Biopump disposable centrifugal pump (which was originally designed as an artificial heart by H. Kletschka) becomes commercially available as an alternative to the roller pump for cardiopulmonary bypass.
 * 1979** --- Continuous arterial venous hemofiltration is described by Kramer of Goettingen, Germany.
 * 1980** --- Continous AV hemofiltration is used for acute renal failure by Paganini of Cleveland.
 * 1981** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Malchesky PS, Asanuma Y, Smith JW, Kayashima K, Zawicki I, Werynski A, Blumenstein M, Nosé Y. Macromolecule removal from blood. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 27:439-44, 1981.
 * 1982** --- W. DeVries (Salt Lake City) implants the pneumatic Jarvik-7 version of the TAH developed by W. Kolff and coworkers at the University of Utah as a permanent cardiac replacement into patient Barney Clark who survives 112 days with the device.
 * 1982** --- Extracorporeal CO2 removal is described by Kolobow.
 * 1983** --- LANDMARK PUBLICATION: Joyce LD, DeVries WC, Hastings WL, Olsen DB, Jarvik RK, Kolff WJ. Response of the human body to the first permanent implant of the Jarvik-7 total artificial heart. Tr Am Soc Artif Intern Org 29:81-87, 1983.
 * 1984** --- In the first successful clinical application of an electrically-powered, implantable system, the Novacor LVAS developed by P. Portner is implanted in patient Robert St. Laurent, representing the first successful bridge-to-transplantation.
 * 1984** --- The role of starvation and nutrition in mortality from acute renal failure is described by Mault at ASAIO.
 * 1985** --- Crossover year during which one-half of all cardiopulmonary bypass procedures in the USA are performed with disposable membrane oxygenators, one-half with bubble oxygenators.
 * 1986** --- An artificial liver using porcine hepatitides is described by DeMetriou.
 * 1987** --- Bard cardiopulmonary support system (CPS ) introduced for rapid deployment, portable, percutaneous access for cardiac emergencies.
 * 1988** --- The axial-flow blood pump is described by Wampler at ASAIO.
 * 1994** --- FDA approval of the pneumatically-driven HeartMate LVAD (Thermo Cardiosystems, Inc.) for bridge to transplantation (the first pump with textured blood-contacting surfaces).
 * 1996** --- REMATCH Trial (Randomized Evaluation of Mechanical Assistance for the Treatment of Congestive Heart failure, E Rose principal investigator) initiated with HeartMate VE (Thoratec Corp.). Results published in 2002 showed mortality reduction of 50% at one year as compared to patients receiving optimal medical therapy.
 * 1998** --- Simultaneous FDA approval of HeartMate VE (ThermoCardiosystems) and Novacor LVAS (Baxter Healthcare Corp), electrically-powered, wearable assist systems for Bridge to Transplantation, utilized in more than 4,000 procedures to date.
 * 1998** --- First clinical application of next-generation continuous-flow assist devices. DeBakey (Micromed Inc.) axial-flow pump implanted by R. Hetzer, G. Noon and M. DeBakey.
 * 1999** --- First clinical application of a fully-implantable circulatory support system. LionHeart LVAS implanted in 67 year-old male recipient by R. Koerfer and W. Pae.
 * 2001** --- The AbioCor totally implantable, electrically-powered TAH is implanted into patient Robert Tools by L. Gray and R. Dowling (clinical trial is ongoing.).
 * 2002** --- FDA approval of the HeartMate VE LVAD for permanent use (Thoratec Corp.).

**__Integrated Systems__**

 * Identify**


 * 1) Machine learning- a broad subfield of [|artificial intelligence], machine learning is concerned with the design and development of [|algorithms] and techniques that allow computers to "learn". (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., "Machine learning." Machine learning 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning>.)]
 * 2) Natural language- Natural language also known as Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of [|artificial intelligence] and [|computational linguistics].( Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., "Natural language processing." __Natural language processing__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing>)]
 * 3) Agent- In [|artificial intelligence], an intelligent agent is used for intelligent actors which observe and act upon an environment, in the sense of a [|rational agent]: an entity that is capable of perception, action and goal directed behavior. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., "Intelligent Agent." __Intelligent Agent__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_agent>.)]
 * 4) AI- The modern definition of artificial intelligence (or AI) is "the study and design of [|intelligent agents]" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximizes its chances of success. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., "Artificial Intelligence." __Artificial Intelligence__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence>.)]
 * 5) Fuzzy logic- Fuzzy logic is derived from [|fuzzy set] theory dealing with [|reasoning] that is approximate rather than precisely deduced from classical [|predicate logic]. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., "Fuzzy logic." __Fuzzy logic__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy_logic>.)]


 * Define**

1. Robot - A robot is a mechanical device that operates automatically. Robots can perform a variety of tasks. They are especially suitable for doing jobs too boring, difficult, or dangerous for people. The term robot comes from the Czech word robota, meaning drudgery. Robots efficiently carry out such routine tasks as welding, drilling, and painting automobile body parts. They also do such jobs as making plastic containers, wrapping ice cream bars, and assembling electronic circuits. The science and technology that deals with robots is called robotics. (Kazerounian, Kazem. "Robot." World Book Online Reference Center. 2005. World Book, Inc. [|http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar472000.)]

2. Android- An android is a [|robot] designed to resemble a [|human], usually both in appearance and behavior. The word derives from the [|Greek] //andr-//, meaning "[|man], male", and the suffix //-eides//, used to mean "of the [|species]; alike" (from //eidos// "species").Androids are testbets for studying human-robot interaction. They enable us to compare the developed robot technologies and humans in a direct manner. Especially, they can be used for verifying cognitive and psychological hypotheses. And then the verified hypotheses are applied for improving the androids. (ATR Intelligent Robotics and Communication Laboratories, "Geminoid." __Geminoid__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://www.irc.atr.jp/Geminoid/Data/Geminoid2.pdf>.)(Wikimedia] Foundation, Inc., "Android." __Android__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android>.)]

3. Cyborg- A cyborg is a [|cybernetic] [|organism] (i.e. an organism that is a self-regulating integration of artificial and natural systems). Generally, the term "cyborg" is used to refer to a man or woman with [|bionic], or robotic, implants. Today, the [|C-LEG] system is used to replace [|human legs] that were amputated because of injury or illness. The use of sensors in the artificial leg aids in walking significantly. These are the first real steps towards the next generation of cyborgs. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., "Cyborg." __Cyborg__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyborg>.)]

4. Sensors- A sensor is a type of [|transducer]. Direct-indicating sensors, for example, a [|mercury thermometer], are human-readable. Other sensors, such as a [|thermocouple], only produce an output voltage or other electrical output which must be interpreted by another device (such as a computer). Most sensors are [|electrical] or [|electronic], although other types exist. To achieve absolute accuracy in the application a [|calibration] is necessary. Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are never aware. Applications include automobiles, machines, aerospace, medicine, industry, and robotics. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., "Sensor." __Sensor__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor#Mechanical>.)]

5. Heuristics- a heuristic is a technique designed to solve a problem that ignores whether the solution can be proven to be correct, but which usually produces a good solution or solves a simpler problem that contains or intersects with the solution of the more complex problem. Heuristics are intended to gain computational performance or conceptual simplicity, potentially at the cost of [|accuracy or precision]. In [|human-computer interaction], [|heuristic evaluation] is a [|usability-testing] technique devised by expert usability consultants. In heuristic evaluation, the [|user interface] is reviewed by experts and its compliance to ten //usability heuristics// (broadly stated characteristics of a good user interface) is assessed, and any violating aspects are recorded.( Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., "Heuristic." __Heuristic__ 2007 12 12 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristics#Computer_science>.)]